In the years of the last century, promising new horizons emerged from the idea that neurological impairments may play a role in the cause of crime. In the future, as scientists learn more about DNA and human gnomes, new types of causal theories will be developed and tested. Biosocial criminology examines the interactions between biological and social factors to understand crime. Barnes et al. 2020 Nédélec et al. 2017 Raine, 2013 The application of biology to criminology dates back to the 1990s with Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso Rafter, 1997 Some of Lombroso's early work described facial functioning.